Introduction
The conflict perspective is one of the fundamental theories in sociology that provides a lens through which researchers examine the dynamics of societal components. It is primarily focused on the inherent divisions of societies, and the power struggles and conflicts that arise as a result. Unlike the functionalist perspective, which views society as a complex yet harmonious system, the conflict perspective sees society as a breeding ground for competition and conflict among individuals and groups over resources, power, and interests.
Origin
The conflict perspective originated from the work of Karl Marx, a 19th-century philosopher and sociologist. Marx proposed that social classes' struggle, particularly between the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers), is the driving force behind human history and social change. He argued that this struggle resulted from the capitalist system, where economic inequality was inherent and resources were unfairly distributed.
Marxism
Marxism, a theory based on Karl Marx's philosophy, highlights the economy and class conflict's significance in society. Established during the 1960s' social upheaval, it counters the idea of societal harmony, presenting society as a hotbed for social conflict. It underscores the economy's primary role, the centrality of class conflict, and the prospect of a better society.
Modern Marxists differ from Marx on whether capitalism's demise can be identified. They often embrace economic determinism, viewing economic crises as signaling capitalism's end. Two Marxism versions exist: humanist Marxism, stressing human agency and individuals' societal role, and structuralist Marxism, emphasizing social structures in shaping human behavior.
- Antonio Gramsci, a humanist Marxist, introduced the theory of hegemony, explaining how the bourgeoisie maintains dominance through ideology and civil society institutions. He argued that a revolution requires forming alliances and gaining subordinate classes' support.
- Structural Marxism, represented by Louis Althusser, emphasizes how social structures shape societal functioning and human behavior. It focuses on the organization of social structures and how they influence individuals and groups. Althusser also stressed the importance of understanding social structures' historical emergence and changes.
Key Postulates
- Inequality as a Central Issue: Conflict theorists assert that societies are characterized by inequality that generates conflict and social change. They argue that different social groups have unequal resources, which creates a power dynamic where the advantaged groups try to maintain their privileges, and disadvantaged groups struggle for more.
- Competition and Conflict are Inherent: According to conflict theorists, competition over scarce resources is a fundamental part of society and is the driving force of conflict. This competition can occur over various resources such as wealth, power, and prestige.
- Power Dynamics and Structures: Conflict theory posits that those with the most resources exercise power over others, establishing societal structures that favor their interests. The state, the legal system, the police, and even the family are all structures that can be used to maintain the status quo.
- Social Change is Inevitable and Often Abrupt: Unlike functionalism, which views social change as gradual and evolutionary, conflict theory argues that societal change is often abrupt and revolutionary. This is because the tension and conflict produced by social inequality inevitably lead to social transformation.
- Ideology and False Consciousness: Following Marx, conflict theorists contend that dominant groups maintain power by promoting their own values and ideas as common sense or natural, leading to a "false consciousness" among the disadvantaged. This masks the reality of exploitation and inequality.
- Role of Activism in Social Change: Conflict theory often places a strong emphasis on the role of social activism and political action in generating social change. Unlike other sociological perspectives, it explicitly calls for social change to reduce inequality.
Modern Conflict Theorists
- Ralph Dahrendorf: Dahrendorf was a German sociologist who argued that conflict can occur between any groups that have different interests. He developed a theory of conflict called "pluralistic conflict theory," which argues that conflict is a normal and healthy part of society.
- C. Wright Mills: Mills was an American sociologist who argued that conflict is often caused by the unequal distribution of power and resources. He developed a theory of conflict called "power elite theory," which argues that a small group of powerful people control society.
- Michael Mann: Mann was a British sociologist who argued that conflict can occur at different levels of society, including the global, national, and local levels. He developed a theory of conflict called "the four sources of power," which argues that power comes from four sources: economic, political, military, and ideological.
Criticism
- Overemphasis on Conflict: Critics often argue that conflict theory places too much emphasis on societal conflict and competition. While conflict and competition are certainly aspects of society, this perspective often overlooks the significant instances of collaboration and cooperation in any society. Theorists such as Talcott Parsons and other functionalists contend that a society built solely on conflict would not function or even survive.
- Neglect of Social Stability: While it focuses on social change, conflict theory often neglects the elements of society that provide stability and continuity. Many argue that institutions and social norms, while they can be tools of oppression, also offer a certain degree of order and predictability to social life.
- Economic Determinism: Critics often contend that Marxian versions of conflict theory are overly focused on the economic factors, arguing that such an approach is reductionist and neglects other forms of inequality, such as those based on race, gender, or sexuality. Intersectionality, a concept proposed by Kimberlé Crenshaw, for instance, emphasizes the overlapping and intersecting nature of social inequalities, which may be overlooked in purely economic models.
- Limited Focus on Individual Agency: Some critics, particularly from interactionist perspectives, argue that conflict theory tends to gloss over the role of the individual in society. While it focuses on large scale structures and power dynamics, conflict theory often neglects the daily interactions and experiences of individuals, and their capacity to create change.
- Predictions of Revolution: Conflict theory, particularly in its Marxist formulations, often predicts revolutionary change as an inevitable outcome of social conflict. Critics argue that this aspect of conflict theory has not held up, given the persistence of capitalist societies and the lack of widespread revolutions in most advanced capitalist nations.
